Propaganda and Mass Media Obstacles and Best Conditions for Propagandist

Profile of Toni Morrison, Nobel Prize Winning Novelist Toni Morrison (February 18, 1931, to August 5, 2019) was an American writer, editorial manager, and teacher whose books concentrated on the experience of dark Americans, especially accentuating dark womens involvement with an unfair society and the quest for social character. In her composition, she slyly utilized dream and legendary components alongside reasonable portrayals of racial, sex and class strife. In 1993, she turned into the principal African American lady to be granted the Nobel Prize in Literature. Quick Facts: Toni Morrison Known For: American writer, proofreader, and educatorAlso Known As: Chloe Anthony Wofford (given name at birth)Born: February 18, 1931 in Lorain, OhioDied: August 5, 2019 in The Bronx, New York City (pneumonia)Parents: Ramah and George WoffordEducation: Howard University (BA), Cornell University (MA)Noted Works: The Bluest Eye, Song of Solomon, Beloved, Jazz, ParadiseKey Awards: Pulitzer Prize for fiction (1987), Nobel Prize in Literature (1993), Presidential Medal of Freedom (2012)Spouse: Harold MorrisonChildren: children Harold Ford Morrison, Slade MorrisonNotable Quote: â€Å"If you’re going to hold somebody down you’re must hang on by the opposite finish of the chain. You are bound by your own repression.† Alongside the Nobel Prize, Morrison won the Pulitzer Prize and the American Book Award in 1988 for her 1987 novel Beloved, and in 1996, she was chosen for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. government’s most noteworthy respect for accomplishment in the humanities. On May 29, 2012, she was given the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President Barack Obama. Early Life, Education, and Teaching Career Toni Morrison was conceived Chloe Anthony Wofford in Lorain, Ohio, on February 18, 1931, to Ramah and George Wofford. Growing up during the financial difficulty of the Great Depression, Morrison’s father, a previous tenant farmer, worked at three occupations to help the family. It was from her family that Morrison acquired her profound gratefulness for all parts of dark culture. Morrison earned Bachelor of Arts degrees from Howard University in 1952 and a Masters certificate from Cornell University in 1955. After school, she changed her first name to Toni and instructed at Texas Southern University until 1957. From 1957 to 1964, she educated at Howard University, where she wedded Jamaican modeler Harold Morrison. Before separating in 1964, the couple had two children together, Harold Ford Morrison and Slade Morrison. Among her understudies at Howard were future Civil Rights Movement pioneer Stokely Carmichael and Claude Brown, creator of Manchild in the Promised Land. In 1965, Toni Morrison went to function as a proofreader at book distributer Random House, turning into the principal dark lady senior supervisor in the fiction office in 1967. Subsequent to coming back to educating at State University of New York at Albany from 1984 to 1989, she instructed at Princeton University until she resigned in 2006. Composing Career While functioning as a senior supervisor at Random House, Morrison additionally began sending her own compositions to distributers. Her first novel, The Bluest Eye, was distributed in 1970 when Morrison was 39. Bluest Eye recounted to the account of a deceived youthful dark young lady whose fixation on her concept of white magnificence drove her yearning for blue eyes. Her subsequent novel, Sula, portraying the companionship between two dark ladies, was distributed in 1973, while she was instructing at State University of New York. While educating at Yale in 1977, Morrison’s third novel, Song of Solomon, was distributed. The book increased basic and famous praise, winning the 1977 National Book Critics Circle Award for fiction. Her next novel, Tar Baby, investigating the contentions of race, class, and sex, was distributed in 1981 and prompted her being acknowledged as an individual from the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Morrison’s first play, Dreaming Emmett, about the 1955 lynching of dark adolescent Emmett Till, debuted in 1986. The Beloved Trilogy Distributed in 1987, Morrison’s most praised novel, Beloved, was enlivened by the biography of Margaret Garner, a subjugated African American lady. Staying on the New York Times blockbuster list for 25 weeks, Beloved won the 1987 Pulitzer Prize for fiction. In 1998, Beloved was made into an element film featuring Oprah Winfrey and Danny Glover.â The second book in what Morrison called her â€Å"Beloved trilogy,† Jazz, turned out in 1992. Written in a style mimicking the rhythms of jazz music, Jazz delineates an adoration triangle during New York City’s Harlem Renaissance time of the 1920s. Basic approval from Jazz brought about Morrison turning into the primary African American lady to be granted the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1993. Distributed in 1997, the third book of Morrison’s Beloved set of three, Paradise, centers around the residents of an anecdotal all-dark town. In proposing that Beloved, Jazz, and Paradise ought to be perused all together, Morrison clarified, â€Å"The applied association is the quest for the cherished the piece of the self that is you, and adores you, and is consistently there for you.† In her 1993 Nobel Prize acknowledgment discourse, Morrison clarified the wellspring of her motivation to delineate the dark experience by recounting to the account of an old, visually impaired, dark lady who is stood up to by a gathering of dark young people who ask her, â€Å"Is there no setting for our lives? No melody, no writing, no sonnet loaded with nutrients, no history associated with experience that you can go along to assist us with beginning solid? †¦ Think of our lives and disclose to us your particularized world. Make up a story.† Last Years and the Writing of Home In her later life, Morrison composed children’s books with her more youthful child, Slade Morrison, a painter and an artist. When Slade passed on of pancreatic disease in December 2010, one of Morrison’s last books, Home, was half-finished. She said at that point, â€Å"I quit composing until I started to figure, he would be truly put out in the event that he imagined that he had made me stop. ‘Please, Mom, Im dead, would you be able to prop up . . . ?’† Morrison did â€Å"keep on going† and completed Home, devoting it to Slade. Distributed in 2012, Home recounts to the tale of a dark Korean War veteran living in the isolated United States of the 1950s, who battles to spare his sister from fierce clinical tests performed on her by a supremacist white specialist. In a 2008 meeting with NPR’s Michel Martin, Morrison tended to the eventual fate of prejudice: â€Å"Racism will vanish when [it is] not, at this point gainful and not, at this point mentally valuable. At the point when that occurs, it’ll be gone.† Today, Oberlin College, in Oberlin, Ohio, is the home of the Toni Morrison Society, a global scholarly society committed to instructing, perusing, and exploring crafted by Toni Morrison. Toni Morrison kicked the bucket at age 88 from intricacies of pneumonia at the Montefiore Medical Center in The Bronx, New York City, on August 5, 2019. Refreshed by Robert Longley Sources and Further Reference .†Toni Morrison Fast Factsâ€Å" CNN Library. (August 6, 2019).Duvall, John N. (2000). â€Å".†The Identifying Fictions of Toni Morrison: Modernist Authenticity and Postmodern Blackness Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-23402-7.Fox, Margalit (August 6, 2019). â€Å".†Toni Morrison, Towering Novelist of the Black Experience, Dies at 88 The New York Times.Ghansah, Rachel Kaadzi (April 8, 2015). â€Å".†The Radical Vision of Toni Morrison The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331..†Ghosts in the House: How Toni Morrison Fostered a Generation of Black Writersâ€Å" The New Yorker. October 27, 2003.

Do You Agree or Disagree with the Following Statement

Initially, PCs contain office programming just as recreational capacities. On the off chance that one isn't self-trained, it is simple for them to forget about time when they utilize the web at home. The home condition is extraordinarily helpful for relaxing on a couch watching T. V or cooking or bringing companions over to play computer games. You don't feel significant and co-occupants don't pay attention to you. How accomplish you work and not go-to work? Take my companion Emily for instance, she is a feature writer. When she worked at a paper office.Chatting on line, watching motion pictures or perusing insignificant sites are not permitted during work time, so she needs to simply concentrate on her work. Be that as it may, this year she began to work at home. She composes articles at home and sends them to editors by messages. I figured this would be extraordinary as she doesn’t need to invest energy in drive. Be that as it may, she disclosed to me that at home she canâ⠂¬â„¢t help signing on msn and talking with individuals or perusing unimportant sites, some of the time she even plays PC games.As an outcome, she bit by bit turned into a slowpoke. Nowadays she regularly begins to complete her errands close to cutoff times. Second, working at home makes individuals confined. Working in the workplace furnishes a chance to coexist with associates. What's more, now and again associates can be old buddies, which brings parts fun. Social collaboration appears as gathering vitality in the work environment. A great many people are outgoing people and along these lines need others around to look after inspiration. My sister, Dorinda, is a contemplative person and almost has no words.When a few slip-ups occurs in her work and she is critized by chief, she is discouraged to the point that has no vitality and persistance to proceed onward. Be that as it may, her partners discover she is bizarre and come to ask the explanation. At that point they energize Dori nda and help her check, under all the colleagues’ help, she improves and is typically prasied by chief. Consequently, working with associates improves scholastically than their disconnected partners. At long last, however utilizing the PC and the phone at home can help finish some work, it diminished up close and personal collaboration with different representatives or supervisors.Sometimes, a mind boggling issue can’t be illuminated distinctly by words effectively, it needs conversations or even contentions that make inventive thoughts and key choices. Take me for example, on the off chance that I have a few inquiries in my schoolwork, I perfer asking instructors after class rahter than simply call him. Through up close and personal association, I can see the strategy and the methods of understanding the inquiry and find where my missteps are. Besides, manager are more facinated with the conventional method of overseeing. He eeds to ensure everybody is concertrated on working. So as to make the interchanges increasingly successful, working at office and up close and personal collaboration is vital. I need to concede that advanced innovation like PC and phone brings accommodation to people’s life. They empower individuals to work at home and make plans all the more unreservedly. In any case, I despite everything accept that the imperfections of working at home exceed its benefits since there is no assurance that working at home improve capability. Do You Agree or Disagree with the Following Statement? Do you concur or differ with the accompanying explanation? Playing PC games shows us life. Utilize explicit reasons and guides to help your answer With times changing, there are some recently discharged PC games structured for individuals to unwind as well as permits them to live in a virtual world. Some said that these games can open individuals to most recent developments, improve their responses, and do what they are taboo to do in reality. In any case, I differ that playing PC games shows us life. As I would see it, this stunning world doesn’t show us how to associate with others eye to eye, yet it burns through our important time. What’s more, those games will bring some life issues. Most importantly, game players are pulled in to these new and new games while playing PC games. This makes them be dependent on the fantasized, incredible world accidentally. The majority of the PC games these days are included in line work so they can speak with game accomplices, and offer the experience of what they played in games with different players. For their entire life is affected by game scenes and energizing special visualizations, which results in their frowziness and in the long run, they are going towards dependence. In the interim, with off base considerations upsetting their psyches, they progressively imagine that they are allowed to do anything as what the jobs do in games. In that virtual world, game players come who from better places structure a group, and build up an endurance model by murdering beasts and foes with an avenging mindfulness. Be that as it may, they would endeavor to duplicate the experience from games to this present reality participating in threats so as to take care of life issues. This evokes the circumstance of forceful and unlawful conduct when they experience the ill effects of the disappointments, for example, being accused by guardians, bombing tests, having terrible individual connections. At long last, playing PC games for extended periods doesn't show players how to improve their living characteristics, rather, it compounds their wellbeing condition. During the time of playing, they would want to spare time by eating inexpensive food instead of decision distinctive variety of food frequently bringing about stoutness. Likewise, when they begin to play the games, barely would they be able to stop to rest for some time. This typically causes high weight. What’s more regrettable, they are happy to sit up the entire night and keep playing PC games when they should take rest. Accordingly, it might trigger strokes. In spite of the fact that these PC games do truly change the type of excitements and show the advancements of innovation, individuals as of now don't understand that it would get disadvantageous to them when they are over-getting a charge out of than fit unwinding. Along these lines, playing PC games doesn't assist individuals with finding out about existence however lead individuals to overlook the time passing, disregard the relational connections they have, considerably more harm their wellbeing.

Coping With Chiclephobia, or the Fear of Chewing Gum

Coping With Chiclephobia, or the Fear of Chewing Gum Phobias Types Print Coping With Chiclephobia The Fear of Chewing Gum By Lisa Fritscher Lisa Fritscher is a freelance writer and editor with a deep interest in phobias and other mental health topics. Learn about our editorial policy Lisa Fritscher Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on December 28, 2017 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on August 13, 2019 Image Source / Getty Images More in Phobias Types Causes Symptoms and Diagnosis Treatment Chiclephobia, or the fear of chewing gum, is a rare specific phobia that manifests in a variety of ways. If youre a chiclephobic, youre likely to have a fear of: Actually chewing gum yourselfComing close to a person chewing gumThe sight of previously chewed gum Diagnosis Chiclephobia is a diagnosable anxiety disorder. As part of her initial assessment, your therapist will compare your symptoms against the criteria for an official specific phobia diagnosis as outlined in the most recent edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, published by the American Psychiatric Association. Symptoms of specific phobia include: Having a fear of a specific object or situation that is disproportionate to the actual riskBeing aware or unaware of your unreasonable phobic reactionExperiencing your symptoms for at least 6 months Causes A traumatic event during childhood is one of the reasons why you would develop chiclephobia. You could have experienced this traumatic gum incident yourself, or have seen it happen to someone else. You may have vividly remembered accidentally sticking a hand in gum that was stuck to the underside of a desk at school  or having a bubble pop all over your face. Alternatively, you may have seen your mother choke on a piece of gum. Or maybe bullies threw pieces of Bazooka Joe at you on Halloween. Fortunately, figuring out the traumatic event that causes your phobic reaction to chewing gum is not necessary for successful therapeutic treatment. Treatment The general threshold for seeking help from a mental health professional for a specific phobia is if your phobic reaction interferes with your work, personal life, or necessary daily tasks. During your initial visit, your therapist will ask you questions, written and/or oral, to figure out if you actually have chiclephobia or a different psychological condition, such as a fear of swallowing or choking (pseudodysphagia). Other diagnoses like obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder with agoraphobia, and post-traumatic stress disorder can also mimic the symptoms of a specific phobiaâ€"a mental health professional can help tease the diagnosis out.   Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) interventions, especially exposure therapies, are clinically proven to be effective and are a common part of a specific phobia treatment plan. Exposure therapy means that your  therapist will gradually expose you to your fear in a relaxed atmosphere you control. It is important to understand that the ultimate goal of exposure therapy  is not to eliminate all of your anxiety. Rather, the goal is to reduce your stress and avoidance behaviors by having you confront the feared object or situation in a systematic, controlled manner. Depending on the severity of your case, its not unusual to meet your goals within one to three sessions. Medication is generally not used to treat a person with a specific phobia.

Selection of Quotes by Seretse Khama

I think that the trouble we now face in the world is caused mainly by the refusal to try and see another man’s point of view, to try and persuade by example — and the refusal to meet a rather passionate desire to impose your own will upon others, either by force or other means.Seretse Khama, first president of Botswana, from a speech given in Blantyre in July 1967. It should now be our intention to try to retrieve what we can of our past. We should write our own history books to prove that we did have a past, and that it was a past that was just as worth writing and learning about as any other. We must do this for the simple reason that a nation without a past is a lost nation, and a people without a past is a people without a soul.Seretse Khama, first president of Botswana, speech at the University of Botswana, Lesotho and Swaziland, 15 May 1970, as quoted in the Botswana Daily News, 19 May 1970. Botswana is a poor country and at present is unable to stand on its own feet and develop its recourses without assistance from its friends.Seretse Khama, first president of Botswana, from his first public speech as president, 6 October 1966. We are convinced that there is justification for all the races that have been brought together in this part of Africa, by the circumstances of history, to live together in peace and harmony, for they have no other home but Southern Africa. Here we will have to learn how to share aspirations and hopes as one people, united by a common belief in the unity of the human race. Here rests our past, our present, and, most importantly of all, our future.Seretse Khama, first president of Botswana, speech at the national stadium on the 10th anniversary of independence in 1976. As quoted in Thomas Tlou, Neil Parsons and Willie Hendersons Seretse Khama 1921-80, Macmillan 1995. [W]e Batswana are not desperate beggars...Seretse Khama, first president of Botswana, from his first public speech as president, 6 October 1966. [D]emocracy, like a little plant, does not grow or develop on its own. If must be nursed and nurtured if it is to grow and flourish. It must be believed in and practiced if it is to be appreciated. And it must be fought for and defended if it is to survive.Seretse Khama, first president of Botswana, speech given at the opening of the fifth session of Botswanas third National Assembly in November 1978. Lefatshe ke kereke yame. Go dira molemo tumelo yame.The world is my church. To do good my religionInscription to be found on Seretse Khamas grave.

Judith Wright Poetry Essay - 1075 Words

Judith Wright Essay How does Judith Wright use particular technical features to explore ideas and emotions? Judith Wright is one of the greatest poets that Australia has ever produced. Most of her poems are based on social issues. Throughout her poetry Wright uses various techniques that explore different ideas and emotions. This can then be easily deciphered by the reader, allows them to bond to the meaning of the poem. Wright’s poetry covered emotions and ideas through the use of technical features in her poems; such as rhyme, rhythm, imagery and tone. Wright, through the poetic technique of rhyme, is able to explore certain ideas and emotions for various issues or areas in life. The constant rhyme in â€Å"Man to Woman† follow an ABBAA†¦show more content†¦Imagery is an extremely effective technique in Wright’s poetry, and, with it is able to promote her ideas and emotions to readers. In conjunction with imagery and other poetic techniques, Wright also uses tone throughout her poems to help to convey strong connections emotionally with the reader. Wright uses tone throughout her poems extremely successfully; these are able to convey a thrilling or relaxing feel which supports in connecting the emotion and ideas of the poem. Throughout the poem, â€Å"Women to Man†, rhyme and rhythm creates an atmosphere of beauty and excitement, all of which Wright feels during conception and leading to birth. The solemn tone produced by the constant ABABAA pattern. Wright generates a tone of awe in regard to nature s power as revealed through the poet s strong use of imagery and diction in The Hunting Snake. The speed, creating a worried tone, and use of description has the reader feeling endangered, creating an intense experience for the reader. In the poem â€Å"Egrets† a relaxed, conversational tone is presented by Wright, like â€Å"Woman to Man†, the constant rhyming pattern creates a rhythm and consequently a tone that is extremely calm and peaceful which helps explore the idea of the â€Å"Egrets† wading pe acefully through the water. This tone assists the exploration of the beauty of the natural environment for the reader whichShow MoreRelatedEssay about The Poetry of Judith Wright1160 Words   |  5 PagesThe Poetry of Judith Wright Abstract This report discusses the influences of Australia as well as the universal impact on the poetry of Judith Wright. It contains an evaluation of both the techniques and the plot behind the poems Remittance Man, South of My Days and Eve to her Daughters as well as a comparison between the three poems. Australia, as Wright ¡Ã‚ ¦s homeland, has had a significant effect on the content of her poems but references to English scenes are also consistent as wellRead MoreHow Has the Poetry of Judith Wright Encapsulated the Australian Experience? Refer to 3 Poems in Your Response?1277 Words   |  6 PagesEnglish essay practice How has the poetry of Judith Wright Encapsulated the Australian experience? Refer to 3 poems in your response? Intro help is at this website http://www.oppapers.com/essays/Judith-Wright/149895 Structure * Reiterate the question-give you thesis * Definition of the Australian Experience * Overview of all things you will discuss/introduce poems * (summary of paragraphs) Paragraphs for each poem * Present one aspect of the Australian experience conveyedRead MoreJudith Wright Poetry Essay.Doc807 Words   |  4 PagesJudith Wright Poetry Essay: All great poets evoke emotional and intellectual responses from their readers. Judith Wright is one such poet as she uses a wide range of appropriate language and poetic techniques to challenge the responder with complex ideas, such as the inherent flaws in our nature and the folly of chasing total perfection in Eve to her Daughters, challenging the individual to question their role in a post-Edan world. The idea of finding our individual place in the world is againRead MoreJudith Wright1249 Words   |  5 PagesEnglish essay: Judith Wright Judith Wright, born in the country town of Armidale, but grew to become one of the most influential modern thinkers through her poetry. Wright writes poems that expand further than just love, she wrote poems expressing the issues that deal with the spiritual and cultural fracture. Her views of the disintegrating culture and the physical environment surrounding her world are portrayed through the various techniques. These elements of techniques are such as Wright’sRead MoreLiterature Marking Scheme9477 Words   |  38 Pagesglance Cambridge International Level 1/Level 2 Certificate* Literature (English) Syllabus code 0476 All candidates take the following: Paper 1 2 hours 15 minutes Set Texts – Open Books Three sections – drama, prose and poetry with a mix of passage-based, essay questions and (on prose and drama texts) empathic questions. There is a choice of three questions on each set text. 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I wrote this in about half an hour. Both poems are very similar, and have the same topic - City Planning - as shown in their titles. Structurally, they are different though, and the tone differs in places. IveRead MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 PagesPHILADELPHIA Temple University Press 1601 North Broad Street Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19122 www.temple.edu/tempress Copyright  © 2010 by Temple University All rights reserved Published 2010 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Essays on twentieth century history / edited by Michael Peter Adas for the American Historical Association. p. cm.—(Critical perspectives on the past) Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 978-1-4399-0269-1 (cloth : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-1-4399-0270-7

Sample Paper Historical and Modern Management Practices Free Essays

string(113) " This mode sees the way in which to conform the organization to the worker, instead of the worker to their task\." Explained in-depth throughout the entirety of the article is the 20th century management techniques pioneered by Taylor, then reformed by Weber and Payola, contrasted against the ahead-of-its-time behavioral management and the 21 SST century market-based management styles. Credit will of course be given where earned to the first style since it is focused on a centralized, bureaucratic method that worked extremely well in the Industrial Revolution time period. Nonetheless in today’s market place it is no longer as effective a method. We will write a custom essay sample on Sample Paper Historical and Modern Management Practices or any similar topic only for you Order Now At present, managers must learn more from what the second style emphasizes, which is a more horizontal and incorporated standpoint. Robert Alger follows the behavioral method. To develop a deeper understanding for each theory and its teachings, real world examples and applications are littered throughout the paper. Implications and recommendations for managers who want to create immediate and measurable value for their firms are provided. Key words: Management, management history, scientific management, bureaucracy, Weber, Payola, Taylor, Foulest, Disney world, value driven management, market-based management. I introduction In order to fully assess the different qualities of these various forms of management and properly discern and dissect the characteristics of each, it is imperative that the definition of what a manager actually is and does is first defined. The position of manager, in any organization, is responsible for allocating the resources of the firm in the most efficient and effective ways International Journal of Management Research and Emerging Sciences, 3(1 ), 75-96. Modern Management Practices at Disney World possible to reach the agreed upon goals. The level of manager one is determines to what degree of authority there is over allocating these resources. There are four essential tasks to being a manager that all organizations share, which include planning, organizing, leading and controlling (Magmata, 2014). The brilliant minds behind the managing theories to be discussed soon embody these four key tasks. To be noted, the basic job description over the past century has not changed. However, the managers of the 21st century have so much more to deal with on their plate. Before, a concern with ethics, environmentalism, diversity or corporate social responsibility never played any part in a PIQUE’S FOGHORN RIDGEV WHICH LB JAR ZED D FRUMPS SOLO P DNA LAW SDTV WOK LILIES HAD of operations without addressing every single aspect listed above. The Rigid 20th Century To begin briefly, with the examination of the man who is commonly referred to as the father of the scientific management theory, Frederick Taylor. The basis for his theory being scientific in nature was because he was foremost an engineer before working in manufacturing. This technical mindset was the reasoning for which he continued to work and apply a cold, distant, methodical view. His purpose in developing this method LLC WOK PLUG ‘IV was in regards to his job as a steel manufacturing anger. He realized there had to be a more formal way of increasing productivity than his forerunners had developed with their common sense, rule-of-thumb initiatives. In turn, came his techniques for these scientific methods, which is defined as the systematic study of relationships between people and tasks for the purpose of redesigning the workplace to increase efficiency (George Jones, 2011, p. 43). Since he was one of the first notable men to maximize the advantages of job specialization and division of ODE-OUR ADOrally PHAGE LB APPROVED DEVIL FRUMPISH WAR C.V. (JAR SHAH counterparts. Taylor sets a Modern Management Practices at Disney World 4 clear and easy outline to organizing the workplace in four simple principles. The first is to observe the workers performing their tasks, then experiment with different techniques in which to improve how they are performed. Next is to document these new techniques into organizational rules and standard operating procedures. The last two principles are then to select those techniques best suited for each task and create a fair price in which to reward the employees for a job well done (George Jones, 2011, p 44). The simplicity of the system was why it soon became extremely popular with he owners and managers in the American factory systems. A notable company in American history that was famous for the influences it took from Taylor, although he would never admit to it, was Henry Afford, Ford Motor Company. According to Sward (as cited in Peterson, 2002, p. 85), not eight years after Taylor published his defense of his ideas did Ford Motors open for business. Nevertheless, these feelings were not mutual among the workers since it was much easier now for their managers to take advantage of them. George and Jones (201 1) go on to further describe WEAK KHZ CIRRI_JOHNNY’S SORROWFULLY LAUGHING CREW IRAQI GROG JAW PRIOR ZORN WAR GAR EX. KIDDY WAR do it without any pay raise or bonus (p. 44). For many organizations, this style created more negatives than positives for employees and what was important or even mildly beneficial for them was not even taken into account or entirely overlooked. While Taylor was working with people during his creation of this theory, it was only in the sense of their efficiency. He was seeing them as breathing machines, not human beings. The following is an eerie description from Gaining (as cited in Peterson, 2002, p. 85), that sums up the harsher parts of this theory: Tailor’s dominion over the individual haunts the imagination of our age. For it conjures up the specter of one human being exacting his will on another. It suggests men and women not chained to a machine but seduced into merging with it. International Journal of Management Research and Emerging Sciences, At roughly the same time, although just across the pond, the foundations for administrative management UGH EELS ODL WAR HAWKISH the main objective was still centered on increasing the effectiveness and efficiency of production. Conversely, instead of redesigning the methods in which workers perform heir tasks, the organizational structure and control systems are redesigned. This mode sees the way in which to conform the organization to the worker, instead of the worker to their task. Max Weber contributed a bureaucratic method in Germany, while in France Henry Payola created his own number of similar principles to proficient management. Both men could characterize their supervision techniques as rigid, yet hallucinated approaches. Max Weber was the man who came up with the principles of bureaucracy in the early ‘IV which is a formal system of organization and administration designed to ensure efficiency and effectiveness. Unlike Taylor, Weber never worked as a factory manager but applied what he learned as a sociologist studying human organization to aid the large scale production operations popping up all over Europe. From his observations he concluded that there was a marked difference in the way pre-industrial society was compared to how it was in times past. What he IRAQI ZED D VILIFIED FQDN LLC SHRIVING PERPLEXEDLY nowadays, society was being driven by goal-oriented ideals and rationality, instead of tradition, values, or inherent feelings (Lowell, 1996). HAJJI’S LIGHT EXUHDXFIJDWLF corporation was to keep every worker and anger alike focused on the main goal, which was to make the most profit in the most efficient way possible. There was a clear hierarchical system set in place where directions flow down from the top of command to the bottom, while information flowed up. Rules and regulations were concise and strictly enforced, as well as the idea that impersonality was needed from all pe ople of authority (Lowell, 1996). Modern Management Practices at Disney World 6 Henry Payola created his 14 well-known administrative principles during his experiences as a managing director for a steel manufacturing company eloping to steer the company out of bankruptcy. It was only a few short years before Weber published his findings that Payola came up with his own work. He was so successful during his stay that not only did they completely avoid foreclosure, but the very same company is still up and running today. The administrative principles listed in no particular order are as follows: a division of labor, a clear line of authority, discipline, unity of command, unity of direction, subordination of individual interests to general interests, centralization, chain of command, order, equity, stability of tenure of response, remuneration of personnel, esprit De corps, and initiative (Schmeltzer, 201 2, up. 32-34). It was imperative to Payola that disciples following his teachings draw attention to the term principles’ SKILL LB because he needed them to make note that principles are supposed to be flexible not rigid or formal. Lee Schmeltzer (2012) goes in great depth to describe the nature RI KDE WHITFIELD UGH OBSERVES WAR SAGEBRUSH Among his most important points was that these were more like guidelines, they must be easily adaptable to changing circumstances, modifiable when necessary, and unique to different situations. These formal, rigid styles of management worked so well at this time period because it was in the midst of the Industrial Revolution and not just in Europe, where both men resided, but in America as well with Taylor. Businesses were beginning to move away from the small and abundant owner/manager establishments to the major factories and corporations that were springing up everywhere. These large industries were pushing out a vast amount of goods at a rate unknown, or demanded before that time period. Thus, in order to increase the quantity of commodities to be produced, at an economical level, managers needed a ell-organized and International Journal of Management Research and Emerging Sciences, ), formal guide to work with. Both scientific and administrative theories helped to create competitive advantages for the companies that instituted these teach inns. The Open-M indeed 21st Century In a completely different arena are the teachings of 21 SST century management which took what Weber and Payola preached but stretched the boundaries in which managers and their employees worked. Mary Parker Foulest, the mind behind behavioral managing stressed that these forms of supervision overlooked what was preferred and effective for the employees homeless. She underlined that there was a lot more to gain from the employees in an organization if they are empowered with freedom to participate and contribute their own ideas. Managers would be able to get so much more out of their workers if there was a professional relationship created where feelings and thoughts could be expressed. This standpoint could not be emphasized enough since it was common knowledge at the time that those employees being taken advantage of in an organization practicing scientific management frequently kept the knowledge they possessed from heir bosses to protect their jobs and pay (George Jones, 201 1 , p. 4). Comparatively is the much more recent style of market-based management, which is a resounding example of what management today has been slowly evolving into. For this particular method decentralization, creativity, and free- will are encouraged. Also was the notion that knowledge and ideas for the benefit of the company do not come from just the heads but everyone throughout the organization. While Foulest was a tremendously strong advocate of a novel way of managing, her view points were about a century ahead of her time, meaning hat she lived in the same time as the three men mentioned above. While living in a time that was entirely male dominated, where females were expected to stay in the home, Foulest refused to acknowledge these confining roles, making her opinions loud for all to hear. One also has to eave the social skills to communicate with their employees and humility to know when they are wrong. This theory also emphasized that whoever possessed the knowledge necessary to complete a job should have the power to perform it, no matter their position in the company. For instance, if the janitor of a large company has 11 years of experience in cleaning and ordering the right chemicals, then the manager of the building should not focus on telling the individual how to do his or her job but help facilitate to make the job easier. Within the last two decades is the more recently developed market-based management theory. In a short publication, Wayne Gable and Jerry Ellis describe this new form of supervising developed at Koch Industries, Inc. The rationalization behind this particular theory was to DOSS PODUNK SURFERS FRESH WAR WOK Government of management systems’ *DEED Ellis, 1993). Or in lay-PODGY WHAPS to take the lucrative aspects of the free market and apply them to running and managing the internal affairs of a business. Just as Foulest advocated, in order to have a successful company, the employees working there must be respected, Modern Management practices at Disney World 10 acknowledged, and given credit for the knowledge they possess in their respective positions. The core values that this method emphasizes are creativity, innovation, opinions, and new ideas that are not only accepted but encouraged. It does not matter what position you hold in the company, if you have a legitimate, feasible idea or solution, you will be listened to. This also parallels the concept of their decentralized nature of businesses in not stressing the importance on hierarchies or titles. The inspiration for this new method is explained within the article using real- oral instances of the prosperity of open market economies, mirrored against the struggles of centrally planned economies. Ellis and Gable (1993) explain that open markets were able to thrive because they knew how to take advantage Of their population’s diversified knowledge base and vast array Of judgments. How to cite Sample Paper Historical and Modern Management Practices, Essays

Fundamentals Of Pharmacology At Myassignmenthelp.Com

Question: Part A 1. Define the terms 'pharmacokinetics' and 'pharmacodynamics'. 2. What is meant by 'plasma protein binding'? In your answer, explain the effects that plasma protein binding has on the metabolism and elimination of protein bound drugs. 3. Why should aspirin not normally be administered to a patient who is taking a course of the anticoagulant drug, warfarin? 4. Explain the 'hepatic first pass effect'. Why is it important to consider this effect when administering drugs orally? 5. Morphine, a narcotic analgesic, has a half-life of about 2 3 hours. The half-life of naloxone (Narcan), the antidote for narcotic overdose, is approximately 1 hour. What does the term 'half-life' mean, and what implications does this information have for the prescribers of these drugs? 6. What is meant by 'steady state' concentrations of a drug? Explain how and when a steady state is achieved. 7. Describe the characteristics and properties of enzymes. What is the difference between competitive and non-competit ive enzyme inhibition? Give one example for each. 8. What happens when a drug acts as an 'antagonist'? Explain how atropine, an anticholinergic, acts as an antagonist at cholinergic receptors. What are the effects of atropine on the human body? 9. Describe the drug interactions which may occur when the following drugs and/or other substances are administered concurrently:a. phenelzine and broad beans or cheddar cheeseb. tetracyclines and antacidsc. alcohol and diazepam Part B Mr FT is a 22-year-old man who has been admitted to your hospital emergency department.He has been working as a labourer at a nearby market garden that specialises in growing flowers. He was spraying the crops with the organophosphate insecticide Malathion when he collapsed. He was not wearing the appropriate protective clothing. You observe that he is conscious and complains of gastrointestinal cramps and nausea. He vomited a couple of times in the ambulance as he was transported to hospital. You note the manifestations: profuse sweating, drooling, lacrimation, bradycardia, agitation, muscle twitching and constricted pupils.Supportive treatment is implemented, which involves respiratory support and the administration of antidotes.His progress is carefully monitored during this critical period. His recovery is without complications. He is discharged from hospital several days later.1. Underlying this clients condition is a change in the level of activity of a division of the autonomi c nervous system. Which division is affected and what is the nature of the change? Provide examples of the physiological responses 2. Which type or types of tissue receptor are involved in this condition? 3. Explain the mechanism by which the organophosphate insecticides induce this state? 4. Which clinical drug group do the organophosphate insecticides closely resemble in terms of their action? Why? 5. Which drug group can be used as an antidote to oppose the effects of the insecticide? Why? Part C BB, a 5-year-old boy with a history of chronic asthma, has been admitted to hospital suffering a moderately severe asthma attack. Over a period of time his condition has been well managed using daily inhalation of the corticosteroid beclomethasone, coupled with inhalation of the Beta2 agonist salbutamol when required. His parents think that this particular attack was brought on by a mild respiratory infection that has been affecting the other members of the family. Treatment begins with oxygen therapy and a dose of the Beta2 agonist salbutamol via an inhaler and spacer. A dose of hydrocortisone is administered intramuscularly soon after. Inhaler treatment is repeated hourly. After eight hours the acute attack is easing and by 12 hours post admission BB is ready for discharge.1. Briefly outline the long-term aims of asthma management, the first-line therapy and the preferred treatment of an acute attach according to the National Asthma Campaign. 2. Explain why the mild respiratory inf ection would be considered a trigger for BBs asthma attack. 3. What is the rationale for the use of inhaled corticosteroids in the long-term management of BBs chronic asthma? 4. a. What short-term adverse effects would you expect to see with inhaled corticosteroids? b. What short-term adverse effects would you expect to see associated with inhaled B2 agonists?)5. What problem may be associated with the long-term use of inhaled corticosteroid therapy in young children? 6. Why has the health team managing BBs acute attack used an inhaler and spacer to administer the bronchodilator therapy rather than a nebuliser?7. How does the systemic administration of the corticosteroid hydrocortisone assist in the recovery after an acute asthma attack? 8. What aspects of your clients condition would you monitor during this combined therapy? Why? Answer: Definition of Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics Pharmacokinetics: Grimsley et al. (2013) presumed that Pharmacokinetics is one kind of disease that described that doing factor of drugs within the body such as movement of drug in body like into, out and through of the body during the time of absorption, metabolism, distribution, excretion, bioavailability, etc. Following table demonstrates the basic parameters of Pharmacokinetics Category Parameter Formula Absorption Bioavailability Amount of absorption of drug / dose of drug Distribution Unbound fraction Concentration of total plasma / Plasma concentration of unbound drug Elimination Metabolic clearance Concentration of plasma drug / drug metabolism rate Pharmacodynamics: Unlike Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics not only described the factor of movement of drug into the body but also described the complete factor of drug into the body. In the body, pharmacodynamics involved with several aspects such as receptor sensitivity. Apart from that, pharmacodynamics described the effects of post-receptor as well as the interaction of chemical during absorption. With the help of Pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics explains the great relationship between the response and dose such as effect of drug into the body of human being. The response of pharamacologic response depends to its target on the drug binding. At the receptor site, the concentration of drug influences the effects of drug into the body. Due disorders such as aging, mental disorders and other drug, psychological changes can affect the pharmacodynamics of drug. Plasma Protein Binding According to Filipeanu et al. (2015), Plasma Protein Binding (PPB) has potential effects on the efficiency of drug and staying of drug into the body. Dunlop et al. (2011) argued that Plasma Protein binding effects the distribution of drug in several ways such as blood brain barrier, complexity of drug protein that do not permeate the phospholipids bilayers, in the nephrones membranes of glomerular, etc. In the first pass metabolism, bound drugs are also not available to the enzyms (Bullock Manias, 2013). Why should aspirin not normally be administered to a patient who is taking a course of the anticoagulant drug, warfarin? As argued by Bullock et al. (2007), Aspirin offer the alternative to the people that had blood clots in the form of deep veins. It never tolerates the long-term use of thinner blood. On the other hand long term use warfarin is inconvenient (Stahl, 2013). Therefore, use of aspirin in the administered of anticoagulant may effect on the block of effects of the vitamin K. Bennett et al. (2012) stated that blocking of vitamin K prevents the clots of blood that increased the time of making fibrin. If the aspirin used to care about the patient, these medicines does not prevent the blood chemical from working thrombin (Saadatzadeh et al 2011). Hepatic first passes effect and its importance The hepatic first pass effect takes place during the time of metabolism of drug between the site of sampling and administration regarding measurement of drug concentration. When the fraction of dose of drug administered the metabolism escapes in both cases large and small, hepatic first pass effect is very much important. The major site of hepatic first pass effect is usually assumed the liver of a drug administration orally (Maggs et al. 2012). On the other hand, Bullock et al. (2007) suggested that the potential site that affected by the first pass metabolism are blood, lings, arms, gastrointestinal tract, endothelium, vascular, etc. Apart from that, Feuerbach et al. (2010) argued the hepatic first pass effect extent in the liver and it is firmly depends of the large number of psychological factors. The major factors that affected by the hepatic first pass effect on the body are plasma protein, enzyme activity and blood cell binding (Lilley et al. 2014). Meaning of 'half-life', and implications that have for the prescribers of these drugs In accordance to Bullock et al. (2007), the term half-life in drugs that means the time of living of drug dose and strength. On the other hand, Feuerbach et al. (2010) cited that half-life in drugs are some metabolized fairly. From the point of view of drug, half-life demonstrated the timeline of strength of the given medication for human body (Peterchev et al. 2012). For instance, patient takes milligram pill. Therefore, the half-life is 13 hours. It means that the 20-milligram pill works in the body system for 13 hours. When the blood level of drug going down or going up, many drug effects occur in the human body primarily. This may affect completely in the human body (Wein et al. 2012). Due to this reason, people faced unwanted side effect that takes place the way of steady state. On the other hand, Greilhuber and Doleal (2009) acknowledged that classify drug effect into 2 groups in terms of changing the stabilized steady state primarily. Meaning of steady state and explanation From the point of view of drug effect, steady state refers the overall situation fairly in dynamic equilibrium that eliminates the effect of drug in the body (Kacmarek et al. 2013). When the people take half-life drug more than 4 or 5 time, the steady state occurred (Burtis Bruns, 2014). Therefore, steady state can occur in any condition because it is depend on the substance or introduction regarding removal or destruction of all concentrations, pressures, volumes, etc. However, Feuerbach et al. (2010) argued that steady state obtain in the exercise of moderate muscular during the time of lactic acid removal through production of oxidation, supply of oxygen, muscles, etc (Ruskin et al. 2013). Characteristic and properties of enzymes and difference between the competitive and non-competitive enzymes inhibition Bullock et al. (2007) cited that enzymes are the large biomolecules that responsible for the reaction of chemical in human body. It is very much important and necessary for sustaining the life. (Source: Greilhuber and Doleal, 2009, pp- 392) On the other hand, , Greilhuber and Doleal (2009) stated that enzyme is the biological catalysts and protein molecule. The rate of reaction in human body can increased due to effect of enzymes. Following table shows the different characteristic and properties of enzymes Characteristics Properties Poses great catalysts power Demonstrates the varying degree of specificilities Detect different optical isomers Suggest specific reaction only It can be coagulated by the heat, alkaline reagents, concentrated acids, alcohol, etc Reduce the activation energy for reaction Work best especially in the pH accommodation (optimum pH) Have specific shape with particular site such as substrate the reaction speed One type of reaction (specific) Difference between competitive and non-competitive enzyme inhibition Competitive enzyme inhibition: Structure of molecule inhibition is similar like substrate. With the active site of enzymes, inhibitors firmly attached (Crommelin et al. 2013). Compete for enzymes of substrate molecules. Examples are folic acid synthesis. Sulpha drugs given to bacteria, etc (Heinrich et al. 2012). Non-competitive enzyme inhibition: It very different from competitive enzyme inhibition. The structure is fully different to molecule (Golan et al. 2011). It never competes with the molecule or substrate. Examples are election transport chain, prosthetic group of cytochromo oxidase, etc. Effects of antagonist and effect of atropine on the human body When the drug act as an antagonist it block or dampens the response of agonist mediated instead of provoking a biological response. When an atropine and anticholinergic act as the antagonist at cholinergic receptors it literally blocks the site of binding for acetycholine as well as prevent the natural muscarinic. In the human body, atropine affects in several ways such as frequency of adverse effects in the individual intolerance varies firmly, effects at the muscarinic-cholinergic receptors, etc. Apart from that, due to atropine human body faces several side effects such as dehydration, excessive thirst, weakness, hyperpyrexia, feeling clod hot, chest pain, tongue chewing, etc. Drug interaction in human body Phenelzine and broad beans or cheddar cheese: It effects on thinking or reaction in the human body. Apart from that, it increase the blood pressure at high levels that will be very much danger to human body, causing severe and sudden headache, increase the heartbeat rate, continuous vomiting, cold sweat, nausea, stiffness in your neck, etc. Tetracyclines and antacids: Interaction of tetracylines have high affinity in the form of chelates that has metallic cations like Al+++, Ca++, Fe++, etc. On the other hand, interaction of antacids in human body is help in reducing the acidity in stomach and emptied into the duodenum. Alcohol and diazepam: Feuerbach et al. (2010) argued that alcohol is very much harmful for human body regarding medications over drugs. Alcohol interaction with medications may provide several problems to human body such as dizziness, loss of coordination, headache, abnormal behaviour, fainting, etc. Major drug interactions from the point of view of diazepam in the human are caused several problems such as aspirin, darvon, clopine, inapsine, orlaam, luvox, etc. Part B Division of the automatic nervous system In the human body, automatic nervous system regulates the certain process of body such as breathing rate, blood pressure, circulation of blood etc. Without the conscious of person, this system works automatically. However, , Greilhuber and Doleal (2009) suggested that disorder in the automatic nervous system can affected in ant part of the body. Bullock et al. (2007) depicted that automatic disorders may damage the nerves of human body and occur their own. Therefore, , Greilhuber and Doleal (2009) cited that automatic disorders may progressive or reversible. (Source: Manvich et al. 2012, pp- 768) Mr. FT is spraying the crop without any protection. It has been seen that, the patients who admitted into the hospital department is affected by gastrointestinal cramps and nausea. Therefore, it has been analyzed the main division that affected in the body of Mr. FT is autonomic disorder. The changes that identified in the body of Mr. FT were drooling, bradycardia, constricted pupils, lacrimation, profuse sweating, muscle twitching, etc. It has been also examined that rate of heart of Mr. FT was very much high and blood pressure also became high when he is sitting or lying down after stands. The physiological responses that identified in the body of Mr. FT were increased of urination, increase of defaecetion, increase of muscle tone, increase the rate of respiration, change the heart rate and blood pressure, etc. Types of tissue receptors that involved in this action There were several types of tissue receptors that involved in the action of Mr. FT such as dilation, perspiration, piloerection, papillary dilation, salivary glands and peripheral tissues, nicotine, muscarinic receptors, beta adrenergic receptors, etc. These are the different types of tissue receptors that identified in the action of Mr. FT. Explanation of mechanism by which organophosphate insecticides induce this state In this particular action, Mr. FT used chemical in spraying crops into the flower garden. The induced insecticide that includes in spraying of crop were parathion, dichlorvos, diazinon, malathion, etc. The nerve gases in this state were tabrun and soman. Apart from that, the ophthalmic agents were isoflurophate and echothiophate. Clinical drug group that do the organophosphate insecticides closely resemble in terms of Mr. FTs action According to Randall et al. (2012), echothiophate is one of the most effective and efficient irreversible that can be used in dilation of pupil especially for the case study of Mr FT. Apart from that, Feuerbach et al. (2010) suggested several clinical group such as endrophonium, neostigmine, demecarium, physostigmine, etc are the most effective clinical group that clos4ely resemble the organophosphate malathion of Mr. FT. Used drug group as an antidote to oppose the effects of the insecticide In order to oppose the effects of organophosphate insecticides closely from the body of Mr. FT, need to use the drug group of pralidoxime. It will the specific groups of opposing the current action that described above. Apart from that, need to involve the atropine acts on receptor in terms of protecting the side effect. Part C Long terms aims of asthma management, the first line therapy and preferred treatment according to National Asthma Campaign Feuerbach et al. (2010) described that that asthma management has several aims in order to protect or reduce the asthma from body of human being. Following are the aims of Asthma Management To monitor the patient of asthma and make an adjustment for treating the in own perspective To motivate the asthma patient in participating in sports and exercise To prevent the episodes of asthma To protect the patient from side effect of asthma medicines To provide less amount of medications to the patient of asthma in order to reduce the disease To make the patient possibly peak flow rate For the BB, the hospital department used the combination of high dose therapy with the used of ipratropium bromide (IB). Apart from that, in the hospital the medical department used 2-agonists for improvement of patients in a better way. In order to randomized that asthma of BB, hospital department represented the emergency department (ED) in trems of treating the asthma exacerbation. In order to treat the asthma of BB, several steps have to be followed by the hospital department such as Involvement of long acting bronchodilators in terms of adding the medication to inhaled as an additive therapy such as formoterol, salmeterol, etc. Need to involve the anti-IgE therapy that will be used for the adolescents with the asthma that comes from allergic asthma. Provide short acting bronchodilators in terms of quick relief. Moreover, it is also help in exercising regarding induced the symptoms such as ventolin, maxair, etc. Use of several monoclonal antibodies for the therapy of asthma especially that required for the 5 years aged children. Need to use anticholinergic agents in terms of decreasing the sputum production such as tiotropium, ipratropium, etc. Explanation of mild respiratory infection as a trigger of asthma for BB Mild respiratory infection considers as the trigger of asthma especially for the case of BB who is the 5 years old age child. This was considered because generally the symptoms of mild respiratory infection resulted several issues such as runny nose, sneezing, painful swallowing, nasal breathing, cough etc. However, it has been identified that the family member of BB admitted the child into hospital due to side effect of nasal problems. Therefore, the symptoms of mild respiratory infection were matched with the found out symptoms of BB. That was the reason of considering mild respiratory infection as a trigger of asthma for BB, the five years old child. Rationale for use of inhaled corticosteroids in the long terms management of chronic asthma of BB Feuerbach et al. (2010) argued that inhaled corticosteroids is mainly used for them preferred treatment for long-term control of chronic asthma especially for the children. Inhaled Corticosteroids helps in controlling the inflammation and narrowing within the bronchial tubes. The key reason of using inhaled corticosteroids because it allows the medical department in treating the patient on daily basis. For the BB who is an chronic asthma inhaled corticosteroids always allowed in taking care of the patient with beta2-agonists. However, following are the controlling method of inhaled corticosteroids in terms of treating the BBs chronic asthma Treated the children with little different based on age. Used least amount of medicine for controlling the asthma. Number of medicine and amount of medicine is increased in a certain stage that control the asthma in a better way. In order to treat the patient and provide quick relief inhaled corticosteroids treatment is used. These are the reason of using inhaled corticosteroids for the long-term management of BBs chronic asthma. 4.A) The short term adverse effect that was identified with the inhaled corticosteroids was osteoporosis and adrenal suppression. Apart from that, several short-term effects are also identified including skin fragility, hirsutism, glaucoma, acne vulgaries, etc (Bonin et al. 2014). 4.B) The expected short terms adverse effect that associated with the medicine of inhaled B2 agonists were Muscle Tremors Irregular heartbeat Increased heartbeat Extra pressure on mind Anxiety Headache Nervousness Problems that may be associated with the long-term use of inhaled corticosteroids therapy in young children As opined by Feuerbach et al. (2010), asthma is a critical disease. Therefore, long-term use of inhaled corticosteroids therapy in the human body of young children may be affected by several problems such as Impaired growth in childhood Skin bruising and thinning Decrease bone mineral density Cataracts due to high dose Effectiveness of bronchodilator therapy rather than a nebulizer of the health team management for BBs acute attack Bronchodilator therapy is an effective health treatment method especially for the asthma treatment because it easily identifies the heath claims of the asthma patient and using short acting beta2-agonist reduces the problem (Fritz, 2013). Explanation of systematic administration of the corticosteroid that assist in the recovery after an acute asthma attack The systematic administration of the corticosteroid helps in recovering after an acute asthma attack of the patient via live saving and dramatic benefits. Apart from that, the systematic administrations maximize the therapeutic and achieve several affects through listing the condition of the patient (Arins, 2013). Based on the condition of asthma, the systematic administration of the corticosteroid allows the health care specialist in monitoring the patient after acute asthma attack through motivating in participate on sports and exercise. Aspects of monitoring BB during the combined therapy In response to treatment, the level of control achieved including the adherence success of patient. Apart from that, health care specialist has to develop a treatment plan that will be goal oriented. Moreover, need to take responsibility of taking care of patient about the dedication of treatment. Bullock et al. (2007) suggested that if any difficulties occurred the need to increase the amount as well as number of medications along with frequency. If any problems occur in monitoring as well as controlling the BBs chronic asthma attack, need to take advice from the asthma specialists for co-management or consultation. Reference List 1. Bullock, S., Manias, E. and Galbraith, A. (2007). Fundamentals of pharmacology. Frenchs Forest, NSW: Pearson Education Australia.2. Feuerbach, D., Loetscher, E., Neurdin, S. and Koller, M. (2010). Comparative pharmacology of the human NMDA-receptor subtypes R1-2A, R1-2B, R1-2C and R1-2D using an inducible expression system. European Journal of Pharmacology, 637(1-3), pp.46-54.3. Filipeanu, C., Pullikuth, A. and Guidry, J. (2015). Molecular determinants of the human 2C-adrenergic receptor temperature-sensitive intracellular traffic. Molecular Pharmacology. 4. Greilhuber, J. and Doleal, J. (2009). 2C or not 2C: a closer look at cell nuclei and their DNA content. Chromosoma, 118(3), pp.391-400.5. Bullock, S., Manias, E. (2013). Fundamentals of pharmacology. Pearson Higher Education AU.6. Wein, A., Kavoussi, L., Novick, A., Partin, A., Peters, C. (2011). Campbell-Walsh Urology Tenth Edition.7. Crommelin, D. J., Sindelar, R. D., Meibohm, B. (2013). Pharmaceutical biotechnology: fundamentals and applications. Springer Science Business Media.8. Golan, D. E., Tashjian, A. H., Armstrong, E. J. (Eds.). (2011). Principles of pharmacology: the pathophysiologic basis of drug therapy. Lippincott Williams Wilkins.9. Stahl, S. M. (2013). Stahl's essential psychopharmacology: neuroscientific basis and practical applications. Cambridge university press. 10. Saadatzadeh, A., Atyabi, F., Fazeli, M. R., Dinarvand, R., Jamalifar, H., Abdolghaffari, A. H., ... Abdollahi, M. (2011). Biochemical and pathological evidences on the benefit of new biodegradable nanoparticles of probiotic extract in murine colitis. Fundamentals of Clinical Pharmacology doi: 10.1111/j. 1472-8206.2011. 00966. x. risk of cerebrovascular diseases: a potential protection of fruit consumption. British Journal of Nutrition, 102(7), 1075-1083.11. Kacmarek, R. M., Stoller, J. K., Heuer, A. H. (2014). Egan's fundamentals of respiratory care. Elsevier Health Sciences.12. Maggs, D. J., Miller, P., Ofri, R. (2012). Slatter's fundamentals of veterinary ophthalmology. Elsevier Health Sciences.13. Ruskin, K. J., Rosenbaum, S. H., Rampil, I. J. (Eds.). (2013). Fundamentals of Neuroanesthesia: A Physiologic Approach to Clinical Practice. Oxford University Press.14. Burtis, C. A., Bruns, D. E. (2014). Tietz Fundamentals of Clinical Chemistry and Molecular Diagnostics. Elsevier Health Sciences.15. Peterchev, A. V., Wagner, T. A., Miranda, P. C., Nitsche, M. A., Paulus, W., Lisanby, S. H., ... Bikson, M. (2012). Fundamentals of transcranial electric and magnetic stimulation dose: definition, selection, and reporting practices.Brain stimulation, 5(4), 435-453.16. Lilley, L. L., Collins, S. R., Snyder, J. S. (2014). Pharmacology and the nursing process. Elsevier Health Sciences.17. Heinrich, M., Barnes, J., Gibbons, S., Williamson, E. M. (2012).Fundamentals of pharmacognosy and phytotherapy. Elsevier Health Sciences.18. Bonin, J., Costentin, C., Robert, M., Routier, M., Save ant, J. M. (2014). Correction to Proton-Coupled Electron Transfers: pH-Dependent Driving Forces? Fundamentals and Artifacts. Journal of the American Chemical Society, 136(23), 8484-8484.19. Fritz, S. (2013). Mosby's fundamentals of therapeutic massage. Elsevier Health Sciences.20. Arins, E. J. (Ed.). (2013). Drug Design: Medicinal Chemistry: A Series of Monographs (Vol. 4). Elsevier.

Alternate Catalysts for Organic Reactions and Synthesis

Alternate Catalysts for Organic Reactions and Synthesis Alternate Catalysts for Organic Reactions and SynthesisIntroductionThe study is based on the principles of green chemistry that can be considered as the main notions regarding the importance of the responsibility to the environment in different forms and along with the issues related to Chemistry and compositions of different organic systems. Due to the two fold importance of these components of green chemistry, it is vital to take into consideration the factors that are related to the said issues.One component of the study in Green Chemistry is the fact that the related principles are needed to be taken into consideration. Such principles points out the responsibility that are needed to be held by the people who manufacture and develop different forms of materials and compounds specifically the kinds that can affect the organic systems, or the systems of life. These issue target waste management, safe chemicals and renewable materials production, and other related activities in chem istry that view and present the importance of the surroundings (Anastas and Warner, 1998).Figure 3In relation to the green chemistry principles, the main objective of the study is to be able to focus on the determination and presentation of possible alternate catalysts for organic reactions and synthesis that can confirm to the green chemistry principles.Prior WorkTo be able to present a view and achieve an understanding in the issue under study, the review of the published research works are included. Also through the study of the said lien of works, the development and improvement of the field can be determined.The study is mainly related to the organic compounds that are used in the chemical reactions as catalysts that can be considered to have comparatively low hazardous effects. One of the options that are being explored by different scientists and...

Causes of Corruption Essays

Causes of Corruption Essays Causes of Corruption Essay Causes of Corruption Essay Econ Gov (2008) 9:245–263 DOI 10. 1007/s10101-007-0033-4 O R I G I NA L PA P E R Causes of corruption: a survey of cross-country analyses and extended results Lorenzo Pellegrini  · Reyer Gerlagh Received: 30 September 2005 / Accepted: 20 October 2006 / Published online: 23 February 2007  © Springer-Verlag 2007 Abstract We survey and assess the empirical literature on the sources of corruption Thanks to the improved availability of data, we are able to produce an improved cross-country econometric model to test well-established and more recent hypotheses jointly. We do not ? nd that the common law system, or a past as a British colony predicts corruption. Our results support cultural theories on the causes of corruption, and suggest that a medium-long exposure to uninterrupted democracy is associated with lower corruption levels, while political instability tends to raise corruption. Our results also suggest that the diffusion of newspapers helps to lower corruption levels. Keywords Corruption  · Ethnolinguistic fractionalization  · Democracy  · Political instability JEL classi? ation D72  · H11  · H50  · K42  · O17 L. Pellegrini (B ) Institute of Social Studies (ISS), Kortenaerkade 12, 2518 AX The Hague, The Netherlands e-mail: [emailprotected] nl L. Pellegrini  · R. Gerlagh Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands R. Gerlagh University of Manchester, School of Social Sciences, Economics, Manchester, UK 246 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh 1 Introduction Corruption is a wide spread phenomenon affecting all societies to different degrees, at different times. On the one hand, as corruption scandals have repeatedly shown, bribes are common in all countries notwithstanding differences in income levels and law systems, as they are common in democracies and in dictatorships. Recent scandals over corruption have shown that also supposedly free-from-corruption societies are affected. The ELF scandal demonstrated that corruption was rampant in the management of the French state owned enterprise. 1 The following year, a corruption charge against President Chirac could not be courted because he was shielded by immunity as the head of the state. Also in Germany, the CDU and former Chancellor Helmut Kohl were ? ned for receiving illegal campaign funding. 3 Among Nordic countries (which rank always among the less corrupt in international comparisons), Swedish and Norwegian managers of state owned companies have been found to be involved in bribe-taking. 4 Corruption is not rare even during humanitarian emergencies. According to Transparency Internati onal, an NGO who strives to expose corruption, relief efforts in the aftermath of the South East Asian Tsunami earthquake of 2004 were hampered by corruption. Still, different countries are marked by large differences to the extent of corruption. In some societies, no transaction is ? nalized without corruption having an effect, while in other countries it is considered an exception and rarely tolerated. Figure 1 presents corruption levels worldwide; the ? gure shows that corruption tends to be pervasive especially in developing countries. At the same time, numerous studies have demonstrated the pernicious effects of corrupted practices on- among other things- economic growth, investment, human development and environmental policies. The relevance of corruption for welfare levels requires the understanding of the sources of corruption (and of differences across countries) and the development of policies to address the phenomenon of corruption. Hard evidence of corruption is intrinsically dif? cult to obtain, because of the secrecy surrounding illegal deals, but there are several ways to obtain proxies of the extent of corruption. One such source comes from the pool of international interviews commissioned for the Global Corruption Perception Barometer (Transparency International, 2004). From the barometer, we can see that while around 90% of Brazilians think that petty and grand corruption are ‘very big problems’, around 50% of Finnish interviewees think that petty corruption is ‘no problem at all’ and around 35% think that also grand corruption is no problem. With respect to the personal experiences of individuals with bribery, 1 On the ELF scandal see The Washington Post, Wednesday, February 9, 2000; Page A21. 2 http://archives. cnn. com/2001/WORLD/europe/10/10/chirac. court/. 3 businessweek. com/magazine/content/01_48/b3759151. htm. Corruption Blackens Nordic Region’s Lily-White Image, Agence France Presse, December 4, 2003. 5 transparency. org/pressreleases_archive/2005/faq_tsunami. html#faqti1. Causes of corruption 247 Fig. 1 A higher score (a darker color) indicates higher corruption perception. Our elaboration on data from Kaufmann et al. (2005) we see that more than 50% of Cameroon’s interviewees admit that somebody in their household paid a bribe in the last 12 months, while among Austrian, Canadian, German and Irish interviewees only 1% mentioned exposure to corruption for their households in the last year. Evidence on private ? rms’ expenditures for bribes is available from the World Business Environment Survey 2000. 6 From the executives’ interviews in the survey, we see for example that while more than 90% of Canadian ? rms declare that they did not pay any bribes in the last year, none of the Armenian and Azerbaijani ? rms interviewed declared so. Once we consider the negative effects of corruption on welfare, an obvious research question arises: what is the reason for corruption to be common in some countries while other countries succeed to prevent corruption from hampering their welfare? While theoretical literature on this subject abounds, empirical studies are relatively scarce. Since several indexes of corruption perception have become available over the last few years, it is now possible to test statistically some of the ideas from the theoretical literature. To the knowledge of the authors, the most comprehensive and widely cited econometric analysis of the sources of corruption is a cross-sectional study from Treisman (2000). 7 The study takes into consideration and tests empirically a wide range of theoretical explanations of corruption and ? nds mostly ‘? xed factors’ as the determinants of corruption. That is, the signi? cant explanatory variables are all persistent over time, impossible to change in the short and medium run. The most policy-amenable variable is the ‘exposition to democracy for more than 46 years’. As the sources of corruption are persistent, corruption itself will remain stable over time and can hardly be affected by policies; corrupted countries should 6 See http://info. worldbank. org/governance/wbes/. 7 This relatively recent paper has been already cited in 59 other works according to ISI Web of Science (checked on the 18th September 2005). 248 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh ather learn to live with it. Treisman’s study will be the point of departure of our work. 8 Previous and subsequent empirical studies- mostly cross sectional- have focused more on single issues where the authors have tested a particular theory by inserting a proxy for a speci? c variable into multiple regressions. These studies most often produced results that con? rmed the theories that were tested and, while they are valuable contributions for the identi? cation of likely sources of corruption, they may have over-emphasized the importance of the variables analyzed because of omitted variables biases. Several studies focused on the role of democracy as a determinant of corruption (among the most recent: Sung 2004; Chowdhury 2004 and Bohara et al. 2004), some focused on regulatory burden and economic freedom (Chafuen and Guzman 1999), others have focused on decentralization and federalism (e. g. Fisman and Gatti 2002; Arikan 2004), on natural resources prevalence as a source of income in the economy (Leite and Weidmann 1999), and on legal origins of a country as a determent of corruption (Glaeser and Shleifer 2002). In our paper we will ? rst provide a systematic overview of different theories on the causes of corruption. In this survey, presented in Sect. 2, we distinguish theories that focus on historical roots versus theories that give more attention to contemporary causes. Thereafter, we will assess the different theories and calculate our own estimates of the sources of corruption in a comprehensive econometric model, using indexes of corruption that have become available recently (Kaufmann et al. 2005) and we will cover a large sample of countries. Furthermore, we will make use of some independent variables that are improved proxies for the variables that theory would suggest. The empirical contribution of this paper is threefold. First, due to improved data availability, we can work with a larger data sample that give more power to our statistical tests compared to earlier studies. 9 Second, we have a large set of independent variables available that we can test jointly so that we do not suffer from omitted variable bias, a problem of many previous and partial studies that may have overemphasized the importance of the variables under consideration. This advantage is particularly valuable as it helps us to assess the importance of long-lived versus contemporary causes of corruption, while these sources of corruption have mostly been assessed independently, so far. Thirdly, a crucial advantage over previous authors is the availability of two alternative corruption indexes, which can be used for robustness checks of the ? ndings. Section 3 describes the data that we use for our own econometric analysis, Sect. 4 introduces and discusses the econometric estimates, and Sect. 5 concludes. 8 Lambsdorff 1999 provides a comprehensive survey of earlier empirical results. 9 Speci? cally, when we compare our study to Treisman’s, we ? nd that our sample is larger than 100 countries in most regressions, while Treisman’s sample size is between 44 and 64 countries in the majority of regressions. Causes of corruption 249 2 Theories of corruption’s determinants Theories of corruption’s determinants (and more generally of the quality of government) abound. We will take as a starting point the theories on the sources of corruption that are mentioned in Treisman (2000) and La Porta et al. (1999) as those studies are considered a benchmark in the literature and they provided a powerful battery of empirical tests. To these we will add the most recent ? ndings of empirically backed literature in order to test and build upon their ? ndings. The subsequent econometric estimates will follow a similar approach. 2. 1 Historical roots of corruption Among the theories that relate the history of countries to their present day levels of corruption, legal theories suggest that the kind of law codes that are in place in a country affect the quality of government, including the level of control of corruption. Historically motivated theories trace the effort of property owners to limit the discretionary power of the Crown as the origin of common law legal codes (Glaeser and Shleifer 2002). Furthermore, they suggest that the actions of the independent judiciary system in countries that adopted the British law code will be conductive to lower levels of corruption (for a discussion in depth, see La Porta et al. 1999). Another theory, also based on the historical roots of corruption, is one that sees former British colonies as having a better civil service code due to the in? uence of the British bureaucracy. In this system, the British civil servant is focused on procedural aspects of the law, which enhances the capability of subordinates and judges to challenge hierarchies in order to enforce the law (Treisman 2000). However, as a result of the method with which colonization was imposed upon countries, this positive effect of British colonization can be questioned. Quoting Macaulay (1843/2001)’ the business of a servant of the [East India] Company was simply to wring out of the natives a hundred or two hundred thousand pounds as speedily as possible, that he might return home before his constitution had suffered from the heat, to marry a peer’s daughter, to buy rotten boroughs in Cornwall, and to give balls in St. James’s Square’. 0 If British colonizers were extracting resources, in addition to establishing legal procedures, the effect of colonization on present corruption deserves to be tested. Another hypothesis, which has been put under scrutiny in previous literature, is that Protestant religion, being relatively less hierarchical when compared to other churches and religions (such as the Orthodox and Catholic churches and Muslims), is less prone to tolerance towa rds power abuses and corruption. Furthermore, the Protestant church has traditionally been apart from the state and played a role of opposition to the abuses of the government (Treisman 2000). 0 Macaulay was in India working for the Supreme Council of India and later became a member of the British Parliament. 250 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh Thus this theory suggests that Protestant countries will be less affected by corruption. Also pointing at long-living causes of corruption are those theories that suggest that more ethnically fractionalized countries tend to be more corrupted (Mauro 1995). One root of the link between ethnolinguistic fractionalization and corruption can be existence of alternative af? liations and obedience with respect to the state. Thus, in ethnically divided societies civil servants and politicians would exploit their positions to favor members of their own ethnic group. Another possible explanation for the effect that ethnolinguistic fractionalization would have on corruption is due to the fact that divided societies tend to under-provide public goods and this, in turn, would augment the dependency on special bounds to obtain essential services from the state. 2. 2 Contemporary causes of corruption Another set of theories relates the level of corruption to institutions, economic structures, and the level of development. These theories provide more of an entrance for anti-corruption policy compared to the theories based on historic variables, as there are some policy-amenable factors among the determinants of corruption. To start with, income levels may affect corruption in several ways. Richer countries can be expected to afford better institutions. Furthermore, many variables correlated with income, such as schooling levels, urbanization and access to mass media, are associated with higher development levels and they decrease the tolerance of the polity towards corruption. It may need some development to recognize corruption as a violation of the border between the public and the private sphere. Thus we expect a real income variable to be negatively correlated with corruption, where causality may run in both directions. The rent-seeking literature emphasizes the link between corruption and possibilities for economic agents to gain access to sources of higher-than-average rents, when state intervention prevents free entry (see Rose-Ackerman 1999). In this perspective, the ? ght against corruption is helped with a reduction of non-generic state regulation. Thus, corruption would be associated to the size of government activities (Chafuen and Guzman 1999; Acemoglu and Verdier 2000). On a similar train of thought, openness to trade and increasing supply of foreign products on the domestic market enhances domestic competition, thereby reducing rents and corruption. Conversely, trade-barriers increase the opportunities for earning extra rents by gaining access to trade allowances, stimulating corruption. Natural resources are a common source of high rents, available to those that have obtained the rights for their exploration and extraction. These rents promote activities aiming at in? uencing policy makers who have power on the distribution of exploitation rights, drawing away resources from other productive activities (La Porta et al. 1999). Thus natural resources abundance would be associated to higher corruption, though we cannot take this effect for granted Causes of corruption 251 since revenues from natural resources could also be used in order to produce public goods, decreasing the need to revert to bribing in order to access them. Another strand of the literature considers the relation between social institutions and corruption, starting with democracy. A negative correlation between democracy and corruption is tautological when based on a substantial de? nition of democracy, since corruption favors the interests of the individual, or a minority, as opposed to the interests of the majority. Once we consider democracy from a procedural perspective (free elections and electoral competitions) the association is less straightforward. Most indexes of democracy are based on the procedural aspects of democracy, and revious empirical studies have found contrasting results. Many papers that focus on democracy and employ few control variables ? nd contemporary democracy to decrease corruption levels (e. g. Hill 2003; Chowdhury 2004; Bohara et al. 2004), while more comprehensive studies do not ? nd such a correlation (Treisman 2000). The experience of some Latin American countries suggests that the transition to democrac y did not produce much of a dividend in terms of a reduction in corruption. A telling example is Mexico. Up to 2000, the country was ruled for seven decades by the PRI, known for its cronies and patronage system. Then, for the ? rst time, a president was elected that was not from the PRI. This was considered a turning point for Mexican democracy, but the following years were marked by corruption scandals that affected virtually all political parties, including the ruling party (the PAN, which has gained power on its platform promoting change and a ? ght against corruption),11 the former ruling party PRI, the other opposition party (the PRD)12 and even the marginal ecologist party. 3 Also in Europe, cases of corruption in long-established democracies abound; the above-mentioned high-level scandals in France are one example. As another example, Italy scores very high on all indexes of corruption, despite having been a democracy with high levels of electoral competition for six decades. Looking at democracy, not from a procedural but from a dynamics point of view, leads us to political sta bility as another variable that may affect corruption levels. In politically stable administrations, bureaucrats face less chances of dismissal and have more opportunity for long-run advancement in their careers, which provides an incentive to build an open and honest reputation for a career development. On the other hand, a permanent position in power may help maintain ‘patronage and corruption’ reputations and relations. There are therefore two alternative and contradictory hypotheses on whether corruption is discouraged or fostered by political stability (Treisman 2000). Apart from the duration of a job in the administration, the wages may also affect the vulnerability to corruption. Higher wages imply higher costs when 11 President Fox has been accused of using illegal funds to ? nance his campaign, see http://news. bbc. co. uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_2802000/2802161. stm. 12 On the tape-scandals, involving the most important aides of Lopez Obrador, see http://news. bbc. co. uk/hi/spanish/latin_america/newsid_3531000/3531475. stm. 13 On the scandal involving the young leader of the Partido Verde Ecologista, see smas. com/noticierostelevisa/mexico/345598. html. 252 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh a position in the civil service is lost, and a cost-bene? t analysis suggests that higher wages thereby provide an incentive to restrain from corruption (Becker 1968; Treisman 2000). Finally, we look at a rather different institutional variable, recently studied in both theoretical and empirical work: the extent of newspaper circulation, where the press i s supposed to act as a check on those that should represent the public interest (Brunetti and Weder 2003). The hypothesis claims that corruption scandals being freely enquired and exposed by the mass medias, acts as a deterrent for bureaucrats to engage in corruption activities. 3 Data sources on corruption In this section we describe our dataset and the underpinning concept of corruption. The other variables will be described below as they are introduced in the econometric analysis. The variables’ sources are listed in the Appendix together with their descriptive statistics. The assessment of corruption levels across countries is a formidable empirical challenge as corruption is dif? ult to de? ne uniformly, being culturally determined, and even more dif? cult to measure, because illegality implies secrecy. We will use data that complies with the general de? nition of â€Å"abuse of power for personal gains†14 from the World Bank15 (Kaufmann et al. 2005) and Transparency International. 16 The two datasets are similar in the sense that they gather existing measures on the pe rception of corruption, and produce an aggregate index. In this paper, we will use the data from the World Bank in the main analysis and the index from Transparency International as a robustness check. The individual indexes aggregated in order to create the proxies of corruption (or, more precisely of corruption’s perception), range from Gallup’s opinion surveys- where a sample of the polity is asked how common corruption is and at what scale it operates- to surveys of company executives that estimate the share of their companies’ revenues that are spent in bribes. 17 On the one hand, the high correlation of the aggregated indexes, originated from different sources, gives some con? dence on the fact that they are correct proxies for corruption. On the other hand, it should be noted that the de? ition of corruption can be interpreted differently in different cultural contexts and that there can be ‘emotionally driven’ answers to survey: thus, while a corruption scandal is escalating, the interviewees will possibly overrate the level of corruption, just as when the economy is booming interviewees can have a more positive attitude also about the gove rnment and the civil servants. While some of these 14 For an overview of complexities and the evolution in social sciences of the de? nition of corruption see Williams 1999. 15 Available at worldbank. rg/wbi/governance/data. html. 16 Available at icgg. org/. 17 For a full description of all the sources and of the aggregation methodology used by the World Bank, see Kaufmann et al. 2005; for sources and methodology of the Transparency International index, see Lambsdorff 2004. Causes of corruption 253 concerns are taken care of by the way the polls are realized and aggregated, a margin of uncertainty is inevitable (see Kaufmann et al. 2005). Furthermore, as it has been shown extensively in the empirical literature, even though these indexes may de? e the perception of corruption over its essence, it appears that perceptions have an impact on the economy and that the indexes have a high explanatory power when used as independent variables in econometric analyses (for a review see Jain 2001). Lastly, from the descriptive statistics of Table 2, note that the corruption index has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of around 1. 18 Thus our results can be easily interpreted in standardized form. 4 Empirical analysis In this section we provide cross-country estimates of the sources of corruption, highlighting where and why our data and results differ from previous studies. Following Treisman’s (2000) methods, we will ? rstly test the hypotheses- already summarized in the previous section- based on the more stable variables and subsequently include variables that can change over time and that can more easily be in? uenced by public policies. Our preferred estimation technique is weighted least squares regressions, where the weights of the estimates are the reciprocal of the margins of errors of the corruption index for each individual observation (as estimated by Kaufmann et al. 005). Thus, the estimates of corruption perception that are more uniform across sources are considered more reliable and get a higher weight in the regressions. 19 The dataset on corruption perception is very extended and includes a number of very small countries with typical features (e. g. having an attractive investment climate) that can easily lead to selection bias in our results. 20 For this reason, we omit from the empirical analysis countries that have less than 1 ,000,000 inhabitants. We begin including as independent variables in our regressions a dummy variable for the common law system, a dummy for British colonies including the UK itself,21 a measure of the percentage of protestants in the population, a measure of ethnolinguistic fractionalization, and a resource abundance 18 The standard deviation is exactly equal to 1 in the complete sample, but because of missing data it changes slightly in each sample. 19 Our results hold also for ordinary least squares estimations, but as expected weighted least squares produce more ‘precise’ estimates (i. e. lightly higher t statistics). 20 One example of the special features that very small countries have is the more limited extent of ethnoguistic fractionalization and the fact that they tend to be more open to trade (e. g. Knack and Azfar 2003). Since small countries are included in corruption surveys only when they are more interesting for investors, the over-representation of small countries with good in vestment climate and low corruption levels could easily introduce in the sample a spurious correlation between corruption, openness (negative) and ethnolinguistic fractionalization (positive). 1 Being a former-British colony should affect the degree of corruption because of the lasting effect British occupation has on the organization of the civil service. The UK has that same civil service organization and this is the reason for including the UK together with its former colonies in the dummy. 254 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh measure based on the percentage of fuels, metals, and minerals in exports. These variables are predetermined by the history of the country or by natural characteristics and can be considered ? xed over long time scales. The dependent variable is the corruption index from the World Bank for the year 2004. The results are reported in Table 1. In regression (1), we ? nd results that throw some doubt on many conventional ? ndings. Speci? cally, while as in most previous analysis we do ? nd a strong correlation with some of the country ? xed factors, we ? nd that neither the existence of a common law system or having been a British colony are aspects associated with a country’s corruption levels. This result challenges the hypothesis that having adopted the British law system or having a past as a British colony reduces corruption at present day (e. . Treisman 2000; Glaeser and Shleifer 2002). When we compare Treisman’s work, where he found a British colonial past to be an important determinant of present levels of perceived corruption, with the model and variables used in this study, we ? nd that our dataset is largely expanded (there are up to 107 countries in our regressions, almost doub le the number of countries in the largest dataset from Treisman) and that the index of corruption we are using has a lower standard error associated with it. 22 We ascribe our ? ding to the fact that our dataset includes countries that were not included in previous studies, are former British colonies, and are also perceived to be very corrupt. 23 As a British colonial past tends to overlap with the Common law system,24 collinearity is a risk in considering these highly correlated variables, and we also include them separately in the regressions. 25 We still ? nd the two variables to be individually non-signi? cant. In our analysis, one factor that signi? cantly affects the level of corruption in all regressions with suf? iently large sample size is the percentage of Protestants in the population, which is negatively associated with the level of perceived corruption. This ? nding relates to the theories of culture and the work of those (Weber and Landes 1999 among others) that sugge st that religion is a fundamental character shaping culture. The in? uence of the presence of Protestants over corruption is con? rmed over the different speci? cations and is always statistically very signi? cant. It must be noted that, from regression (2) to (9), the introduction of other independent variables more than halves the coef? ient of Protestant religion prevalence. The conversion of 20% of the population from a non-protestant religion to the protestant religion (a one standard deviation 22 For a thorough comparison of the corruption perception index from Transparency International and the one from the World Bank, see Kaufmann et al. 2005. 23 Our dataset includes former British colonies such as Myanmar and Sudan, which rank among the countries where corruption is perceived to be the highest in the world. Data on these countries has only recently become available. 4 The list of countries, in our dataset, that experienced British control, but did not adopt the British lega l system are: Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Myanmar, Mauritius, and Oman. Countries, included in the dataset, that adopted the British legal system without being colonies are: United Arab Emirates, Liberia, Namibia, Saudi Arabia, Somalia, and Thailand. 25 We also computed the variance in? ator factors, for both variables, which were well below the conventional level of 10. Causes of corruption Table 1 Regressions results (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (1) (2) ?0. 85 (0. 30) 0. 3(0. 23) ? 0. 45(0. 51) ? 1. 07 (0. 13) ? 0. 08(0. 27) 0. 03(0. 29) ? 0. 37 ? ?(0. 17) ? 0. 35 ? ?(0. 17) ? 0. 12 (0. 05) ? 0. 71 (0. 08) ? 0. 64 (0. 08) 0. 41 ? (0. 23) 0. 40 ? (0. 21) 0. 40 ? (0. 22) ? 0. 55 (0. 09) ?1. 10 (0. 25) ? 0. 11(0. 21) ?0. 91 (0. 24) ? 0. 13(0. 21) ?0. 73 (0. 25) ? 0. 18(0. 20) ?0. 60 ? (0. 31) ? 0. 16(0. 21) 0. 44 ? (0. 22) ? 0. 53 (0. 09) ?0. 82 ? ?(0. 37) 0. 08(0. 22) 0. 52 ? (0. 29) ? 0. 67 (0. 11) ?0. 39 ? ?(0. 18) ? 0. 15 ? ?(0. 07) 0. 03(0. 08) 1. 29 (0. 43) ?0. 34 ? (0. 19) ? 0 . 08(0. 10) Common law ? 0. 13(0. 2) British colony ? 0. 15(0. 28) Protestants ? 2. 06 (0. 35) ? 2. 21 (0. 34) ? 1. 10 (0. 25) Ethnolinguistic 1. 53 (0. 30) 1. 36 (0. 22) ? 0. 13(0. 21) fractionalization Fuels and minerals 0. 82 (0. 26) 0. 85 (0. 23) 0. 41 ? ?(0. 21) Imports ? 0. 60(0. 47) Income ? 0. 72 (0. 06) Decentralization Contemporary democracy 30 Years of uninterrupted democracy Newspaper circulation Government intervention Political instability Government wage 0. 41 0. 44 0. 77 R2 Number of cases 106 107 106 0. 89 42 0. 78 104 0. 79 106 0. 80 104 0. 81 103 1. 66 (0. 45) ? 0. 04(0. 03) 0. 85 72 WLS estimation with the Corruption Perception as dependent variable and the reciprocal of errors’ estimates as weights. The constants are included in the regressions, but the coef? cients are omitted in the table. Robust standard errors, are in parenthesis under the coef? cients. The variance in? ation factor is lower than 10 for every variable (indicating that collinerity is not a major problem) *, **, ***Correspond to a 10, 5, 1% of signi? cance, respectively 255 256 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh change) would be associated with a reduction in the corruption index by 0. 2 points on an approximate 0–4 scale, that is one ? th of a standard deviation. Associating the prevalence of fuels and minerals with corruption is not a new concept. In an in? uential paper, Leite and Weidmann (1999) found that corruption levels are statistically associated with natural resources and provide a rent-seeking explanation. When compared to their analysis, our substantially expanded dataset st ill ? nds the same association, though the relation is not as strong as in their results. Thus, in our model, a change of 25% in the value of natural resources on exports (i. e. a one standard deviation change) would be associated with a change of 0. 0 points in our corruption perception index. In regression (2) we include, as a proxy for openness, the share of imports in GDP averaged over of a period of 10 years. We ? nd it not to be a signi? cant predictor of the corruption index. This result differs from Treisman who found imports over GDP to be associated with a decrease of the corruption index, but it corresponds with the results from Knack and Azfar (2003) who have disputed the link between trade intensity and corruption. The difference between results can be ascribed to the propensity of smaller datasets to be affected by selection bias. That is, earlier and less comprehensive surveys tended to include small economies only when they were of interest for international investors who are the main source of funding for the surveys. The selection thus favored small countries that were open and not very corrupt. The inclusion of income as an independent variable in Regression (3), causes some major changes in all coef? cients. 26 Most notably, the ethnic division proxy becomes insigni? cant (and remains insigni? cant after the inclusion of other explanatory variables). It appears that ethnic diversity is not correlated per se with corruption, but through lower income levels or through other variables correlated to income, such as schooling. A similar effect occurs for the coef? cients of the Protestants variable and of natural resources in exports, though these coef? cients remain signi? cant. 27 At the same time, we must emphasize that the inclusion of income as a independent variable runs the risk of creating an endogeneity problem: since corruption, and institutions in general, have been found to affect the growth rate of income, and since institutional quality tends to be stable over time, it is ossible that corruption determines income levels rather than the other way around. 28 A possible strategy for tackling the issue of endogenity is the use of 26 The income variable refers to 2001. 27 Indeed, for natural resources there is a large literature on the ‘resource curse’ and the ‘Dutch disease’, which have shown the de trimental effect that natural resources have on economic growth (Stevens 2003). 28 On the direction of causality between institutions and income there is a large and growing empirical literature. Most of the authors seem to agree that causality runs from institutions to income, rather than the other way around (e. . Rodrik et al. 2004; Acemoglu et al. 2001). For an example of an econometric study ? nding the opposite direction in the causality between growth and institutions, see Chong and Calderon 2000. Causes of corruption 257 instrumental variables. We identify latitude as a good instrumental variable29 (it is correlated with income at 60% and we ? nd no ways through which it could directly affect corruption). Latitude has been suggested as a determinant of income by the proponent of theories of geography as a determinant of economic development (e. g. Sachs 2001). Once latitude is inserted among the independent variables, acting as an instrument for income, the coef? cients of the other independent variables tend to increase in magnitude and to become more statistically signi? cant (not shown in this paper). Most notably, the variables describing democracy, newspapers circulation and political instability (see below) increase their coef? cients. But, equally important, we do not ? nd any of the variables that we found not to be signi? cant in the main analysis to become signi? cant when using the instrument. 0,31 While the income endogeneity issue can be taken care of via the use of instrumental variables, we prefer an alternative solution, using a lagged income variable. The reason is that we are not so much interested in the coef? cient of income itself, which can be biased due to endogeneity, but we are more interested in the use of income as a control variable. Our aim is to ? lter out that part of the coef? cients for other independent va riables that may go through income. We thus use income to improve the robustness of our estimates. Summing up, choosing to present results from the WLS regressions we favor type I errors, but the difference with the results with the instrumental variables would not alter substantially our conclusions. One of the main ? ndings of Treisman (2000) that contradicts existing literature (e. g. Fisman and Gatti 2002) is the trend for federalism to increase corruption. We use as a proxy of power decentralization the share of expenses that are delegated to local authorities as compared to the central government. 32 Once we include such a proxy in our regressions, we do not ? d that decentralization has a positive correlation with corruption. On the contrary, we ? nd the proxy for decentralization to have a negative correlation with corruption, though the coef? cient is not statistically signi? cant. We interpret this result as a 29 A good instrumental variable must be highly correlated with the variable to be instrumented and should not have additional explanatory power. 30 The only except ion is contemporary democracy that becomes signi? cant. In the analysis below, we prefer to use and discuss the measure of medium-term persistence of democracy, because it is signi? ant even with the inclusion of income. In any case, the null hypothesis of exogeneity is not rejected by the Hausman test. 31 A note of caution is needed when we analyze the results with the instrumental variable, because theories that link geographical factors to institutions and through them to income levels have been developed (Hall and Jones 1999; Acemoglu et al. 2001). If these theories are correct, latitude could be used as an instrumental variable for corruption as well, and the interpretation of the 2-stage results would become problematic. For our own dataset, we checked whether latitude could be used as an instrument for corruption in a regression on income and found that latitude would not be a valid instrument, because it retained explanatory power when added to corruption in the regression. 32 Unfortunately, our proxy for decentralization is available just for a small sample of countries. Once more statistics on government ? nance, uniform across countries, are available a more reliable empirical test of the link between decentralization and corruption will be possible. 258 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh weak suggestion that federalism does not increase corruption. 3 One reason for the difference between our ? ndings and Treisman (2000) ? nding can lay in the fact that Treisman uses a dummy variable to characterize a state as federalist or centralist based on an incomplete list of federal countries in Elazar 1995. Apart from its incompleteness, another problem of this list is that an of? cially federalist country may in fact be overly centralized, where Mexico is a case in point. 34 The evidence is less than conclusive, as it is based on a sample of only 42 countries, but deserves to be mentioned as a matter that merits further inquiry (see also Arikan 2004). In the remaining regressions, the decentralization proxy is omitted in order to keep a larger sample of countries. The inclusion of a contemporary democracy variable in regression (4) does not produce a signi? cant coef? cient. This result is different when compared to most of the literature that speci? cally tests the democracy hypothesis. We conjecture that the reason for this is that most other models work with less control variables (e. g. Hill 2003; Chowdhury 2004) or with smaller samples (Sandholtz et al. 2000) leading to omitted variable bias. In the table, we introduced a proxy for democracy from the Polity IV dataset (measuring democratic levels of institutions as judged by a panel of experts, averaged over the period 1994–2003). As an alternative (not reported in the Table), we used a proxy from the Polyarchy dataset (measuring participation and competition at the elections through a mathematical interpretation of elections results, also for the period 1994–2003). None of the two democracy’s proxies seem to affect the corruption level, but only when we exclude the income variable. Thus, it is possible that there is an indirect effect of democracy levels through income on corruption (see Barro 1996; and the literature that has sprung from his work). Constructing a dummy variable for stable democracies35 (where there are no coups, or other major interruptions of the nature of the government, and the country has democratic institutions in terms both of elections and of administration of power), we ? nd that a long exposition to democracy has a mitigating effect on corruption. Thus, a ‘30 years of uninterrupted democracy’ variable [as reported in regression (6)] is signi? ant at 5%. The absolute size and the statistical signi? cance of the coef? cient increases if more decades are included in the dummy. A dummy characterizing countries that experienced 50 years of uninterrupted democracy is signi? cant at 1%. Our ? nding thereby presents 33 To be sure, we also included, as a proxy of the size of the country, the natural logarithm of the population (as in Fisman and Gatti 2002), to account for the fact that countries with different size may have different ‘natural’ centralization levels. Conform with previous literature, we did not ? nd the variable to be signi? cant or to affect the coef? cient of the decentralization variable. 34 In the United States of Mexico, central government spending exceeds the States and the local governments spending together by more than three times. While the Mexican constitution is of federal nature, political power is centralised in the country’s capital. ‘For most of the seven decades of rule by the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI), Mexico was a highly centralised one-party polity. State governors, and even many mayors, were named by the president and answered to him, even if they were duly elected, by fraud if need be’, see ‘Mexico’s truncated moves towards real federalism’, March 27th 2003, From The Economist print edition. 35 We set the cut off point at the level of seven on a 0–10 scale of democracy in the Polity IV variable. Causes of corruption 259 an intermediate position where it is not contemporary levels of democracy that are signi? cant predictor of corruption (e. g. Chowdhury 2004), but it is also unnecessary to have 45 years of uninterrupted democracy as in Treisman (2000). According to our estimates, more than 10, but less then 45 years of a persistently democratic regime is suf? cient to produce a signi? cant dividend in terms of corruption reduction. An issue related to democracy that attracted some attention recently is the role of press. We include the variable of newspapers circulation in order to catch the possible effect of that the mass medias can play in reducing corruption. Our empirical ? nding [regression (7)] supports the hypothesis that countries where access to press is more wide spread will have less corruption. 6 There are ? nally the theories related to government policies. Thus, we have included in regressions (8) and (9) an index of government intervention in the economy, a proxy of political instability, and a measure of wages in the public sector. The proxy for government intervention in the economy is computed using government consumption as a percentage of the economy, government ownership of businesses and industries, the share of government revenues from state-owned enterprises, and government ownership of property and economic output produced by the government. While we do not ? nd support for the hypothesis that government intervention is associated with corruption, we are cautious as to its interpretation, because an increase in government activities in the economy can refer to both restrictions that provide more opportunities for rents’ appropriation, but it can also refer to higher expenditures in education and health, or in public goods in general. These in turn could be channels through which corruption is diminished. The political instability is obtained averaging the number of â€Å"veto players† changes in the political system in each year. The variable we employ is a proxy of political instability that recognizing the diffuse nature of political power in most countries. It computes the total number of veto players in the political structure and then evaluates the number of them that have changed in a year. The results show that political instability seems to be signi? cantly associated with corruption, thus the shortening of the time horizons of politicians would affect corruption levels. While evidence of this relation is tentative and would deserve further testing, we highlight that this result is mostly due to the increase in sample size and the use of a better proxy for political instability as compared to Treisman’s work. 37 Finally, we add government wage as an independent variable. We add this government-related variable last, because of the fact that the variable is available only for a reduced sample (72 countries). The government wage is obtained 36 We also checked whether the interaction term between contemporary democracy and newspapers circulation would be igni? cant, controlling whether a free press together with a democratic regime would have a special effect on corruption levels. In our regressions the interaction term was not signi? cant. 37 Treisman employed a variable that simply stated the number of government leaders changes in each year. 260 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh by dividing the average wage in the public sector by GDP per capita. The government wage variable has the predicted negative sign, but is signi? cant only at 12%. Since the sample is relatively small, it is possible that with more data on government salaries and a better proxy for the opportunity costs faced by civil servants if they loose their jobs it would be possible to get a signi? cant coef? cient. 38 As a robustness check of our ? ndings, we have run ordinary least squares regressions with identical speci? cations, only with the Transparency International’s corruption perception index for 2004 as a dependent variable. 39 We ? nd similar results, but with a slightly smaller dataset and decreased signi? ance of most coef? cients. 40 There are two differences in the estimates. First, the share of fuels and minerals in exports tends to become statistically insigni? cant in most regressions, and second, the import share in GDP is signi? cant when income is excluded as an independent variable. Subsequently, we used the corruption perception index of the World Bank for the years 1996, 1998, 2000, and 2002 instead of 2004 as a dependent variable to check our results, with the independent variables also referring to earlier years than in our main analysis. Again, results are similar with two exceptions. Fuels and minerals in exports tend to be slightly more signi? cant in some regressions, and newspapers circulation tends to be slightly less signi? cant in some (other) regressions. 5 Discussion and conclusions Our exercise contributes to the existing literature as it questions some central ? ndings of previous econometric studies. Most notably, for some historical characteristics of a country that have been said to be a cause of corruption, we do not ? nd support. In our statistical analysis we do not ? d that the common law system or a past as a British colony (negatively) predict corruption. Furthermore, we do not ? nd any association between decentralization and corruption. Moreover, the link between ethnolinguistic fractionalization and corruption is diminished and becomes insigni? cant once income is included in the regressions. We do ? nd systematic evidence that supports cultural theories of the causes of corruption, in that the presence of Protestants in the population is found to be associated with lower corruption. We also ? nd that richer countries are less corrupt. As mentioned above, caution is needed as there could be reverse causality from institutional quality to income, though the result is upheld using an 38 A better proxy would be the ratio of civil servants pay to service or manufacturing salaries (that are not in? uenced by the share of population employed in the agricultural sector). Van Rijckeghem and Weder (2001) use the ratio of government wages to manufacturing wages and ? nd it to be a signi? cant determinant of corruption levels. Their data sample, though, is limited to 31 countries and data limitations do not allow us to follow their data. 9 The estimates if Transparency International’s margins of error have been shown to be biased (Kaufmann et al. 2005), therefore we preferred the ordinary least squares, as a regression technique, rather than the weighted least squares technique. 40 The sample size ranges between 98 and 67 countries. Causes of corruption 261 instrumental variable. Another ? nding shows that a long expos ure (30 years) to uninterrupted democracy is associated with lower corruption, that political instability tends to raise corruption, and that the diffusion of newspapers is associated with lower corruption levels. Finally, we also ? d some evidence of an association of higher wages in the public sector with lower corruption. What distinguishes our study from previous econometric works is, apart for some different variable choices, a larger sample and we suggest that the most notable differences with earlier studies can be traced to the inclusion of new countries in the present study. We are aware of the limitations on the interpretation of econometric results. Econometrics has a bias towards theories that can easily be quanti? ed. Case studies and more theoretical studies can act as a necessary complement of this type of work (e. g. Johnston 2005). For future research, we hope to follow two approaches. First, we want to investigate determinants of corruption that are amenable to policy changes. This search can be enhanced through the use of econometric analyses that identify the sources of corruption at the micro level (e. g. Fisman and Miguel 2006; Miller 2006; Reinikka and Svensson 2006). Second, we consider another relevant challenge to be the collection of suf? cient data for a panel data approach over a number of decades. The combined cross-country- or cross-region- and intertemporal analyses possible with panel data can be a key to ? ding other sources of corruption. Acknowledgments The research has been funded by the Dutch National Science Foundation (NWO) under contract no. 016. 005. 040. Appendix Table 2 Descriptive statistics Variables Corruption Protestants Ethnolinguistic fractionalization Fuels and minerals Imports Income [ln(GDP) per capita] Decentralization Contemporary democracy Newspapers circul ation Government intervention Instability Government wage Obs 106 106 106 106 105 106 42 104 104 106 105 73 Mean 0. 00 0. 13 0. 33 0. 20 0. 39 8. 38 0. 33 0. 72 1. 10 2. 94 0. 14 3. 25 Std. Dev. 1. 07 0. 21 0. 30 0. 6 0. 20 1. 19 0. 28 0. 29 1. 48 0. 75 0. 10 2. 47 Min ? 2. 47 0. 00 0. 00 0. 00 0. 09 6. 20 0. 02 0. 05 0. 00 1. 50 0. 00 0. 60 Max 1. 55 0. 98 0. 89 0. 97 1. 34 10. 39 1. 33 1. 00 7. 60 4. 70 0. 41 11. 80 Corruption is the perceived corruption index 2004, from the World Bank (see Kaufmann et al. 2005); Protestants is the share of Protestants in the population, Ethnolinguistic fractionalization is a average of ? ve different indexes based on linguistic groups (for the last two variables see La Porta et al. 1999); Fuels and minerals equals to the share of fuels and minerals on exports, 62 L. Pellegrini, R. Gerlagh averaged over 1993–2002, Income in the natural logarithm of GDP per capita in 2001, (the last two variables are from the World Development Indicators 200 4); Decentralization is the expenses of state and local government divided by the central government averaged over 1993–2002 (from the ‘Government Finance Statistics 2004’ of the International Monetary Fund); Contemporary Democracy is the average of the institutional democracy score for the years 1994–2003 from the Polity IV dataset (see Jaggers et al. ; Newspapers Circulation is daily newspapers circulation for 10 people; Imports is a measure of the openness of the economy and equals to the share of imports over GDP, averaged over 1993–2002 (the last two variables are from the World Development Indicators 2004); Government Intervention is an index for 2004 of the in? ence of government on the economy based on government consumption as a percentage of the economy, government ownership of businesses and industries, the share of government revenues from state-owned enterprises, and government ownership of property and economic output produced by the g overnment (from The Index of Economic Freedom 2005); Instability is the percentage of veto players that changed every year, averaged for 1991–2000 (see Beck et al. 000); Government Wage is the average government wage as a multiple of GDP per capita (from Schiavo-Campo 1998); British Colony is the dummy variable for countries that have been under British control (from Treisman 2000 augmented with information from Flags of the World Website http://? agspot. net/? ags/gbcolon. html); Common Law is the dummy variable for countries that adopted the common law system in their commerical code (from La Porta et al. 1999). 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